Any Pain | Joint | Back | Neck | Headache/Migraine | Facial/Jaw | |
Full Sample | 1.24*** | 1.26*** | 1.20*** | 1.17*** | 1.14*** | 1.13*** |
By Age Group | ||||||
25–44 | 1.17*** | 1.24*** | 1.13*** | 1.11** | 1.15*** | 1.15** |
45–64 | 1.26*** | 1.24*** | 1.22*** | 1.21*** | 1.19*** | 1.12* |
65–84 | 1.35*** | 1.29*** | 1.31*** | 1.27*** | 1.17** | 1.17* |
By Cohort (generation) | ||||||
Greatest Generation (1918–1932) | 1.08 | 1.18 | 1.26* | 0.97 | 0.97 | 1.22 |
Silent (1933–1945) | 1.54*** | 1.47*** | 1.36*** | 1.33*** | 1.08 | 1.17 |
Early Boomer (1946–1954) | 1.28*** | 1.34*** | 1.22** | 1.20* | 1.23* | 1.23 |
Late Boomer (1955–1964) | 1.19** | 1.14* | 1.22*** | 1.16* | 1.02 | 1.11 |
Generation X (1965–1980) | 1.19*** | 1.30*** | 1.11** | 1.12* | 1.17*** | 1.05 |
Millennial (1981–1993) | 1.21* | 1.32* | 1.13 | 1.02 | 1.22* | 0.98 |
By Sex | ||||||
Men | 1.28*** | 1.31*** | 1.24*** | 1.24*** | 1.23*** | 1.18** |
Women | 1.19*** | 1.22*** | 1.16*** | 1.12*** | 1.10*** | 1.11** |
By Race | ||||||
White | 1.23*** | 1.27*** | 1.18*** | 1.17*** | 1.16*** | 1.13** |
Black | 1.37*** | 1.23*** | 1.39*** | 1.24*** | 1.15* | 1.12 |
Hispanic | 1.20*** | 1.20*** | 1.15** | 1.10 | 1.06 | 1.24* |
Other | 1.11 | 1.27** | 1.04 | 1.16 | 1.01 | 0.99 |
By Region | ||||||
Northwest | 1.15*** | 1.27*** | 1.05 | 1.03 | 1.10 | 1.22* |
Midwest | 1.17*** | 1.20*** | 1.12** | 1.16*** | 1.25*** | 1.11 |
South | 1.29*** | 1.26*** | 1.33*** | 1.26*** | 1.11** | 1.03 |
West | 1.30*** | 1.33*** | 1.19*** | 1.17*** | 1.13** | 1.27*** |
By Interview Type | ||||||
Self-respondent | 1.23*** | 1.26*** | 1.19*** | 1.16*** | 1.14*** | 1.13*** |
Proxy | 1.37* | 1.30 | 1.27 | 1.80*** | 1.67** | 1.60 |
By Nativity | ||||||
U.S.-born | 1.25*** | 1.26*** | 1.21*** | 1.18*** | 1.16*** | 1.12** |
Foreign-born | 1.15*** | 1.26*** | 1.10* | 1.08 | 1.00 | 1.23* |
By Language of Interview | ||||||
English | 1.24*** | 1.26*** | 1.21*** | 1.17*** | 1.14*** | 1.13*** |
Not English | 1.14* | 1.25** | 0.97 | 1.06 | 1.05 | 1.17 |
By Education | ||||||
Less than high school | 1.40*** | 1.43*** | 1.41*** | 1.34*** | 1.24*** | 1.31*** |
High school | 1.40*** | 1.43*** | 1.40*** | 1.30*** | 1.20*** | 1.08 |
Some college | 1.29*** | 1.30*** | 1.25*** | 1.13*** | 1.24*** | 1.08 |
Bachelor's degree or more | 1.17*** | 1.18*** | 1.15*** | 1.19*** | 1.17*** | 1.24*** |
By Income | ||||||
Below poverty level | 1.38*** | 1.45*** | 1.39*** | 1.34*** | 1.15** | 1.19* |
1–1.9 times poverty level | 1.42*** | 1.35*** | 1.38*** | 1.37*** | 1.30*** | 1.25** |
2–3.9 times poverty level | 1.29*** | 1.35*** | 1.24*** | 1.18*** | 1.16*** | 1.19** |
4 times poverty level | 1.14*** | 1.16*** | 1.09*** | 1.08* | 1.08* | 1.06 |
Any Pain | Joint | Back | Neck | Headache/Migraine | Facial/Jaw | |
Full Sample | 1.24*** | 1.26*** | 1.20*** | 1.17*** | 1.14*** | 1.13*** |
By Age Group | ||||||
25–44 | 1.17*** | 1.24*** | 1.13*** | 1.11** | 1.15*** | 1.15** |
45–64 | 1.26*** | 1.24*** | 1.22*** | 1.21*** | 1.19*** | 1.12* |
65–84 | 1.35*** | 1.29*** | 1.31*** | 1.27*** | 1.17** | 1.17* |
By Cohort (generation) | ||||||
Greatest Generation (1918–1932) | 1.08 | 1.18 | 1.26* | 0.97 | 0.97 | 1.22 |
Silent (1933–1945) | 1.54*** | 1.47*** | 1.36*** | 1.33*** | 1.08 | 1.17 |
Early Boomer (1946–1954) | 1.28*** | 1.34*** | 1.22** | 1.20* | 1.23* | 1.23 |
Late Boomer (1955–1964) | 1.19** | 1.14* | 1.22*** | 1.16* | 1.02 | 1.11 |
Generation X (1965–1980) | 1.19*** | 1.30*** | 1.11** | 1.12* | 1.17*** | 1.05 |
Millennial (1981–1993) | 1.21* | 1.32* | 1.13 | 1.02 | 1.22* | 0.98 |
By Sex | ||||||
Men | 1.28*** | 1.31*** | 1.24*** | 1.24*** | 1.23*** | 1.18** |
Women | 1.19*** | 1.22*** | 1.16*** | 1.12*** | 1.10*** | 1.11** |
By Race | ||||||
White | 1.23*** | 1.27*** | 1.18*** | 1.17*** | 1.16*** | 1.13** |
Black | 1.37*** | 1.23*** | 1.39*** | 1.24*** | 1.15* | 1.12 |
Hispanic | 1.20*** | 1.20*** | 1.15** | 1.10 | 1.06 | 1.24* |
Other | 1.11 | 1.27** | 1.04 | 1.16 | 1.01 | 0.99 |
By Region | ||||||
Northwest | 1.15*** | 1.27*** | 1.05 | 1.03 | 1.10 | 1.22* |
Midwest | 1.17*** | 1.20*** | 1.12** | 1.16*** | 1.25*** | 1.11 |
South | 1.29*** | 1.26*** | 1.33*** | 1.26*** | 1.11** | 1.03 |
West | 1.30*** | 1.33*** | 1.19*** | 1.17*** | 1.13** | 1.27*** |
By Interview Type | ||||||
Self-respondent | 1.23*** | 1.26*** | 1.19*** | 1.16*** | 1.14*** | 1.13*** |
Proxy | 1.37* | 1.30 | 1.27 | 1.80*** | 1.67** | 1.60 |
By Nativity | ||||||
U.S.-born | 1.25*** | 1.26*** | 1.21*** | 1.18*** | 1.16*** | 1.12** |
Foreign-born | 1.15*** | 1.26*** | 1.10* | 1.08 | 1.00 | 1.23* |
By Language of Interview | ||||||
English | 1.24*** | 1.26*** | 1.21*** | 1.17*** | 1.14*** | 1.13*** |
Not English | 1.14* | 1.25** | 0.97 | 1.06 | 1.05 | 1.17 |
By Education | ||||||
Less than high school | 1.40*** | 1.43*** | 1.41*** | 1.34*** | 1.24*** | 1.31*** |
High school | 1.40*** | 1.43*** | 1.40*** | 1.30*** | 1.20*** | 1.08 |
Some college | 1.29*** | 1.30*** | 1.25*** | 1.13*** | 1.24*** | 1.08 |
Bachelor's degree or more | 1.17*** | 1.18*** | 1.15*** | 1.19*** | 1.17*** | 1.24*** |
By Income | ||||||
Below poverty level | 1.38*** | 1.45*** | 1.39*** | 1.34*** | 1.15** | 1.19* |
1–1.9 times poverty level | 1.42*** | 1.35*** | 1.38*** | 1.37*** | 1.30*** | 1.25** |
2–3.9 times poverty level | 1.29*** | 1.35*** | 1.24*** | 1.18*** | 1.16*** | 1.19** |
4 times poverty level | 1.14*** | 1.16*** | 1.09*** | 1.08* | 1.08* | 1.06 |
Notes: N = 441,707 in aggregate population. Each cell shows the odds ratio for the effect of time. We estimated logistic models of “any pain” as a function of a continuous linear time trend plus basic controls. The time trend is scaled to range from 0 to 1 so that the odds ratio can be interpreted as the difference in the odds of reporting pain at the end of the observation period relative to the beginning (2018 vs. 2002).
The controls are age, sex, race, region, foreign-born, language of interview, and proxy respondent status. Models that stratify for a given characteristic omit that characteristic from the list of covariates except for age, which is included in the age-stratified and cohort-stratified analyses. Missing values are imputed as discussed in the Methods section; estimation takes into account NHIS complex sampling design. The bolded cells indicate statistically significantly different trends across groups: we estimated additional logistic models of each pain measure for which we did not stratify but interacted the variable of interest (such as sex, race, and cohort) with the linear continuous time trend. For parsimony, rather than show a full set of results from these interaction models, we highlight in this table those characteristics that interacted significantly (p < .05) with the time trend. The omitted categories in these models were, respectively, age 25–44, Millennial cohort, male, White, Northwest, self-respondent, U.S.-born, language of interview was English, and the highest educational and income categories. Thus, for instance, the bolded coefficients for the Greatest Generation indicate that the “any pain,” joint, neck, and headache/migraine pain trend for this generation differs significantly from the pain trend in the Millennial generation, net of included covariates.
Source: NHIS 2002–2018.
p < .05; **p < .01; ***p < .001