. | Relative Risk Ratio, Birth With Same, Different Father vs. No Birth . | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Australia . | United States . | Norway . | Sweden . | |||||
Same . | Different . | Same . | Different . | Same . | Different . | Same . | Different . | |
Parity (first child’s father) | ||||||||
One child | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 |
Two children | 0.37* | 0.21* | 0.61* | 0.23* | 0.33* | 0.18* | 0.26* | 0.19* |
Three children | 0.24* | 0.06* | 0.43* | 0.14* | 0.18* | 0.07* | 0.18* | 0.09* |
Four children | 0.23* | 0.06* | 0.48* | 0.09* | 0.22* | 0.05* | 0.23* | 0.07* |
Mother’s Age First Birth | ||||||||
<20 years | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 |
20–25 years | 1.18* | 0.53* | 1.23* | 0.46* | 1.17* | 0.48* | 1.08* | 0.49* |
26–29 years | 1.10 | 0.14* | 1.25* | 0.14* | 1.20* | 0.17* | 1.05* | 0.17* |
30 years or older | 0.84* | 0.08* | 1.00 | 0.06* | 0.93* | 0.07* | 0.82* | 0.07* |
Prior Marriage | ||||||||
No | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 |
Yes | 1.06 | 1.22 | 0.79* | 0.92 | 0.70* | 1.36* | 0.78* | 1.53* |
Unknown | 0.89 | 1.59 | ––a | ––a | ––a | ––a | ––a | ––a |
Immigrant | ||||||||
Native-born | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 |
Group 1 | 0.88 | 0.78 | 1.31* | 0.66* | 1.00 | 1.34* | 0.77* | 0.96* |
Group 2 | 0.74* | 0.39* | ––a | ––a | 1.15* | 1.06 | 0.93* | 0.86* |
Group 3 | ––a | ––a | ––a | ––a | 1.24* | 0.78* | 1.06* | 0.90* |
Unknown | ––a | ––a | ––a | ––a | 1.29* | 0.18 | 1.26* | 1.28* |
Mother’s Education | ||||||||
Compulsory | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 |
Secondary | 0.96 | 0.99 | 0.78* | 0.63* | 0.96 | 0.85* | 0.96* | 0.83* |
Tertiary | 1.10 | 0.70* | 0.96 | 0.44* | 1.18* | 0.76* | 1.12* | 0.75* |
Unknown | ––a | ––a | ––a | ––a | 0.94* | 0.63* | 0.76* | 0.44* |
Maternal Grandmother’s Education | ||||||||
Compulsory | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 |
Secondary | 0.94 | 1.14 | 0.93 | 0.98 | 1.12* | 1.00* | 1.05* | 1.22* |
Tertiary | 1.01 | 1.10 | 0.92 | 1.08 | 1.26* | 1.12* | 1.22* | 1.29* |
Unknown | 1.04 | 1.52* | 0.98 | 1.25* | 1.12* | 0.85* | 0.99 | 0.93* |
Decade Interval Start | ||||||||
<1980 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 |
1980s | 0.92 | 1.15 | 0.81* | 1.29* | 0.94 | 1.59* | 1.23* | 1.33* |
1990s | 0.75* | 1.74* | 0.72* | 1.53* | 0.81* | 3.17* | 1.01 | 1.38* |
2000+ | 0.65* | 2.04* | 0.66* | 1.53* | 0.97 | 3.61* | 1.08* | 1.57* |
Log-Likelihood | –10,304.5 | –34,400.9 | –298,119.4 | –4,723,345.5 | ||||
df | 40 | 36 | 44 | 44 | ||||
Observations (years) | 31,176 | 92,479 | 11,621,623 | 16,942,575 |
. | Relative Risk Ratio, Birth With Same, Different Father vs. No Birth . | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Australia . | United States . | Norway . | Sweden . | |||||
Same . | Different . | Same . | Different . | Same . | Different . | Same . | Different . | |
Parity (first child’s father) | ||||||||
One child | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 |
Two children | 0.37* | 0.21* | 0.61* | 0.23* | 0.33* | 0.18* | 0.26* | 0.19* |
Three children | 0.24* | 0.06* | 0.43* | 0.14* | 0.18* | 0.07* | 0.18* | 0.09* |
Four children | 0.23* | 0.06* | 0.48* | 0.09* | 0.22* | 0.05* | 0.23* | 0.07* |
Mother’s Age First Birth | ||||||||
<20 years | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 |
20–25 years | 1.18* | 0.53* | 1.23* | 0.46* | 1.17* | 0.48* | 1.08* | 0.49* |
26–29 years | 1.10 | 0.14* | 1.25* | 0.14* | 1.20* | 0.17* | 1.05* | 0.17* |
30 years or older | 0.84* | 0.08* | 1.00 | 0.06* | 0.93* | 0.07* | 0.82* | 0.07* |
Prior Marriage | ||||||||
No | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 |
Yes | 1.06 | 1.22 | 0.79* | 0.92 | 0.70* | 1.36* | 0.78* | 1.53* |
Unknown | 0.89 | 1.59 | ––a | ––a | ––a | ––a | ––a | ––a |
Immigrant | ||||||||
Native-born | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 |
Group 1 | 0.88 | 0.78 | 1.31* | 0.66* | 1.00 | 1.34* | 0.77* | 0.96* |
Group 2 | 0.74* | 0.39* | ––a | ––a | 1.15* | 1.06 | 0.93* | 0.86* |
Group 3 | ––a | ––a | ––a | ––a | 1.24* | 0.78* | 1.06* | 0.90* |
Unknown | ––a | ––a | ––a | ––a | 1.29* | 0.18 | 1.26* | 1.28* |
Mother’s Education | ||||||||
Compulsory | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 |
Secondary | 0.96 | 0.99 | 0.78* | 0.63* | 0.96 | 0.85* | 0.96* | 0.83* |
Tertiary | 1.10 | 0.70* | 0.96 | 0.44* | 1.18* | 0.76* | 1.12* | 0.75* |
Unknown | ––a | ––a | ––a | ––a | 0.94* | 0.63* | 0.76* | 0.44* |
Maternal Grandmother’s Education | ||||||||
Compulsory | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 |
Secondary | 0.94 | 1.14 | 0.93 | 0.98 | 1.12* | 1.00* | 1.05* | 1.22* |
Tertiary | 1.01 | 1.10 | 0.92 | 1.08 | 1.26* | 1.12* | 1.22* | 1.29* |
Unknown | 1.04 | 1.52* | 0.98 | 1.25* | 1.12* | 0.85* | 0.99 | 0.93* |
Decade Interval Start | ||||||||
<1980 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 |
1980s | 0.92 | 1.15 | 0.81* | 1.29* | 0.94 | 1.59* | 1.23* | 1.33* |
1990s | 0.75* | 1.74* | 0.72* | 1.53* | 0.81* | 3.17* | 1.01 | 1.38* |
2000+ | 0.65* | 2.04* | 0.66* | 1.53* | 0.97 | 3.61* | 1.08* | 1.57* |
Log-Likelihood | –10,304.5 | –34,400.9 | –298,119.4 | –4,723,345.5 | ||||
df | 40 | 36 | 44 | 44 | ||||
Observations (years) | 31,176 | 92,479 | 11,621,623 | 16,942,575 |
Notes: Women born in 1952–1991, children born ages 16–45, singleton first birth, birth interval exposures 1+ years. All estimates are unweighted (see text). Immigrant groups 1–3 are as follows: for Australia, 1 = English-speaking countries; 2 = non-English-speaking countries. For the United States, 1 = all immigrants. For Norway/Sweden, 1 = Nordic countries; 2 = Western Europe, United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand; and 3 = all other countries.
Sources: Australia: HILDA (2008). United States: NSFG (1995 and 2006–2008). Sweden: registers (1968–2007). Norway: registers (1970–2007).
aNot applicable.
*p < .05 for Australia and the United States; *p < .001 for Norway and Sweden