Local open defecation robustly linearly interacts with population density: International sample
| . | Fixed Effects . | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| . | Country . | Country . | Survey . | Survey . | Region . | Region . |
| . | (1) . | (2) . | (3) . | (4) . | (5) . | (6) . |
| Panel A: Infant Mortality Is the Dependent Variable | ||||||
| Local open defecation × ln(Density) | 3.273* | 2.271* | 3.523** | 2.772* | 2.266* | 1.581 |
| (1.390) | (1.049) | (1.178) | (1.077) | (1.060) | (1.071) | |
| Local open defecation | 26.27*** | 12.61*** | 22.99*** | 11.71*** | 18.80*** | 8.715*** |
| (2.339) | (2.244) | (1.978) | (2.186) | (1.794) | (2.166) | |
| ln(Density) | –0.330 | 0.518 | –0.316 | 0.390 | ||
| (0.646) | (0.519) | (0.518) | (0.495) | |||
| Household open defecation | 6.246*** | 3.102** | 6.141*** | 3.455*** | 6.276*** | 3.808*** |
| (1.711) | (1.049) | (1.309) | (1.015) | (1.278) | (1.021) | |
| Urban | –1.709 | –2.252 | –2.222† | |||
| (2.051) | (1.446) | (1.152) | ||||
| Extended controls | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | |||
| N (live births) | 1,109,116 | 942,350 | 1,109,116 | 942,350 | 1,109,116 | 942,350 |
| Panel B: Child Height-for-Age Is the Dependent Variable | ||||||
| Local open defecation × ln(Density) | –0.0744* | –0.0445 | –0.0677** | –0.0396* | –0.0394** | –0.0229† |
| (0.0335) | (0.0275) | (0.0218) | (0.0192) | (0.0146) | (0.0116) | |
| Local open defecation | –0.493*** | –0.115* | –0.457*** | –0.102** | –0.437*** | –0.114*** |
| (0.0465) | (0.0490) | (0.0325) | (0.0329) | (0.0236) | (0.0208) | |
| ln(Density) | 0.0259† | –0.00212 | 0.0257** | –0.00168 | ||
| (0.0150) | (0.0133) | (0.00957) | (0.00916) | |||
| Household open defecation | –0.183*** | –0.0676*** | –0.183*** | –0.0718*** | –0.185*** | –0.0835*** |
| (0.0241) | (0.00840) | (0.0143) | (0.00664) | (0.0140) | (0.00657) | |
| Urban | 0.135*** | 0.136*** | 0.122*** | |||
| (0.0360) | (0.0242) | (0.0191) | ||||
| Extended Controls | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | |||
| Age (in months) × Sex | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ |
| n (children under 5) | 856,165 | 701,573 | 856,165 | 701,573 | 856,165 | 701,573 |
| . | Fixed Effects . | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| . | Country . | Country . | Survey . | Survey . | Region . | Region . |
| . | (1) . | (2) . | (3) . | (4) . | (5) . | (6) . |
| Panel A: Infant Mortality Is the Dependent Variable | ||||||
| Local open defecation × ln(Density) | 3.273* | 2.271* | 3.523** | 2.772* | 2.266* | 1.581 |
| (1.390) | (1.049) | (1.178) | (1.077) | (1.060) | (1.071) | |
| Local open defecation | 26.27*** | 12.61*** | 22.99*** | 11.71*** | 18.80*** | 8.715*** |
| (2.339) | (2.244) | (1.978) | (2.186) | (1.794) | (2.166) | |
| ln(Density) | –0.330 | 0.518 | –0.316 | 0.390 | ||
| (0.646) | (0.519) | (0.518) | (0.495) | |||
| Household open defecation | 6.246*** | 3.102** | 6.141*** | 3.455*** | 6.276*** | 3.808*** |
| (1.711) | (1.049) | (1.309) | (1.015) | (1.278) | (1.021) | |
| Urban | –1.709 | –2.252 | –2.222† | |||
| (2.051) | (1.446) | (1.152) | ||||
| Extended controls | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | |||
| N (live births) | 1,109,116 | 942,350 | 1,109,116 | 942,350 | 1,109,116 | 942,350 |
| Panel B: Child Height-for-Age Is the Dependent Variable | ||||||
| Local open defecation × ln(Density) | –0.0744* | –0.0445 | –0.0677** | –0.0396* | –0.0394** | –0.0229† |
| (0.0335) | (0.0275) | (0.0218) | (0.0192) | (0.0146) | (0.0116) | |
| Local open defecation | –0.493*** | –0.115* | –0.457*** | –0.102** | –0.437*** | –0.114*** |
| (0.0465) | (0.0490) | (0.0325) | (0.0329) | (0.0236) | (0.0208) | |
| ln(Density) | 0.0259† | –0.00212 | 0.0257** | –0.00168 | ||
| (0.0150) | (0.0133) | (0.00957) | (0.00916) | |||
| Household open defecation | –0.183*** | –0.0676*** | –0.183*** | –0.0718*** | –0.185*** | –0.0835*** |
| (0.0241) | (0.00840) | (0.0143) | (0.00664) | (0.0140) | (0.00657) | |
| Urban | 0.135*** | 0.136*** | 0.122*** | |||
| (0.0360) | (0.0242) | (0.0191) | ||||
| Extended Controls | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | |||
| Age (in months) × Sex | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ |
| n (children under 5) | 856,165 | 701,573 | 856,165 | 701,573 | 856,165 | 701,573 |
Notes: Standard errors are clustered by country in columns 1 and 2 and by DHS in columns 3–6. Extended controls include six indicators for the child’s household owning the six common DHS assets (electricity, radio, television, motorcycle, car, and refrigerator); indicators for sex, birth calendar month, and multiple births; year of birth, entered linearly; indicators for first, second, or third birth order; an indicator for whether the child’s mother attended school; and the mother’s age at first birth, entered linearly.
†p < .10; *p < .05; **p < .01; ***p < .001 (two-tailed tests)